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Introduction to Chemistry
▸ What is Chemistry?
▸ Career Opportunities
Problem Solving Skills
▸ Problem Solving in Chemistry
Practical Skills
▸ Safety in the Laboratory
▸ Scientific Method
▹ Variables
▸ Experimental Design
▸ Writing Laboratory Reports
▹ Plotting Points on a Graph
▹ Drawing the Line of Best Fit
▹ Predictions from Graphs (extrapolation & interpolation)
▸ Accuracy and Precision
▸ Experimental Errors
Maths for Chemistry Students
Representing Numbers
▸ Significant Figures
▸ Scientific Notation (exponential notation)
SI Units
▸ SI Units Introduction
▹ Temperature Unit Conversions
▹ Mass Unit Conversions
▹ Volume Unit Conversions
▹ Length Unit Conversions
▹ Energy Unit Conversions
Classification of Matter
▸ Pure Substances and Mixtures
▹ Density Calculations
▸ Elements and Compounds
▹ Allotropes
▹ History of the Elements
▸ Metals and Non-Metals
Chemical Reactions
▸ Physical and Chemical Changes
▸ Types of Chemical Reactions
Chemical Formula
▸ Molecular Formula
▸ Empirical and Molecular Formula
▹ Empirical Formula Experiment: Magnesium Oxide
▸ 2-Dimensional (full display) Structural Formula
▸ Condensed Structural Formula (semi-structural formula)
▸ Skeletal Structural Formula
Also see Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
Also see Name and Formula (Introduction to Inorganic Compounds)
Also see Ligands and Complex Ions
Chemical Equations
▸ Word Equations for Chemical Reactions
▹ acid + metal word equations
▹ acid + carbonate word equations
▹ acid + base word equations
▸ Balancing Chemical Equations
▸ Writing Precipitation Reaction Equations
Stoichiometry (Chemical Calculations)
▸ Relative Molecular Mass (Formula Weight)
▸ Calculating Percentage (Percent) Composition
▸ Definitions of a Mole
▹ Mole-Number of Particle Calculations
▹ Mass-Mole Calculations
▹ Molar Gas Volume Calculations
▸ Molar Concentration, Molarity of Solutions (mol L-1 or M)
(See also solutions for dilutions and other types of concentration)
▸ Reaction Calculations: Mass and Moles
▹ Limiting Reagents and Reactants in Excess
▹ Yield
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Organic (carbon) Chemistry
IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Aliphatic Compounds (IUPAC Naming)
▸ Introduction to IUPAC Naming for Organic Compounds
▸ Introduction to Functional Groups
▸ Homologous Series
▸ Saturated and Unsaturated Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbon Nomenclature
▸ Straight-Chain Alkanes
▹ Branched-Chain Alkanes
▸ Straight-Chain Alkenes
▸ Straight-Chain Alkynes
Aldehyde Nomenclature
▸ Straight-Chain Alkanals
Ketone Nomenclature
▸ Straight-Chain Alkanones
Alcohol Nomenclature
▸ Straight-Chain Alkanols
▹ Branched-Chain Alkanols
▹ Straight-Chain Alkanediols
▹ Classification of Alkanols (alcohols)
Haloalkane (alkyl halide) Nomenclature
▸ Straight-Chain Haloalkanes (alkyl halides)
▹ Classification of Haloalkanes (alkyl halides)
Carboxylic acids Nomenclature
▸ Straight-Chain Alkanoic Acids
Esters Nomenclature
▸ Simple Esters
Nitrile Nomenclature
▸ Alkanenitriles
Amine Nomenclature
▸ Straight-Chain Primary Alkanamines
Amide Nomenclature
▸ Straight-Chain Primary Alkanamides
Molecules with different functional groups
▸ Naming Saturated Molecules with 2 Different Functional Groups
Organic Isomers (aliphatic compounds)
Structural Isomers
▸ Types of Structural (Constitutional) Isomers
▹ Structural Isomers of Alkanes
▹ Structural Isomers of Alkenes
▹ Structural Isomers of Haloalkanes
Stereoisomers
Cis-Trans (Geometric Isomers)
▸ cis-trans (Geometric) Isomers of Alkenes
Optical Isomers
▸ Chiral Centres and Chiral Molecules
Organic Reactions (aliphatic compounds)
Classification of Organic Reactions (introduction)
(i) Substitution and Addition Reactions
▸ Halogenation of Hydrocarbons
▸ Hydrohalogenation of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
▸ Hydration of Alkenes to Alkanols (alcohols)
▸ Substitution Reactions of Haloalkanes (alkyl halides)
▸ Alkanol and Hydrohalic Acids (HX)
(ii) Elimination Reactions
▸ Dehydration of Alkanols (alcohols)
▸ Synthesis, Isolation and Purification of Esters (Fischer Esterification)
▸ Dehydrohalogenation of Haloalkanes (alkyl halides)
(iii) Oxidation Reactions
▸ Oxidation of Alkenes
▸ Oxidation of Alkanols (alcohols)
▸ Combustion of Hydrocarbons
▸ Combustion of Alcohols (alkanols)
(iv) Reduction Reactions
▸ Hydrogenation of Alkenes
(v) Polymerisation Reactions
▸ Polymers and Polymerization
(a) Addition Polymerisation Reactions
▹ Polyethene (polyethylene)
▹ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
▹ Polystyrene
▹ Polytetrafluoroethene
▹ Polypropene (polypropylene)
(b) Condensation Polymerisation Reactions
▹ Polyesters
▹ Polyamides (Nylons)
Organic Synthesis (aliphatic compounds)
▸ Reaction Schemes for Organic Chemistry
Properties and Uses (aliphatic compounds)
▸ Alkanes
▸ Alkenes
▹ Case Study: Ethene (ethylene)
▸ Alkanols (alcohols)
▸ Alkanals and Alkanones (aldehydes and ketones)
▸ Alkanoic Acids (carboxylic acids)
▸ Amines
▸ Nitriles (alkanenitriles)
Aromatic Compounds
▸ Benzene Structure and Properties
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Biochemistry (Biological Chemistry)
Biomolecules
▸ Carbohydrates (sugars)
▸ Fatty Acids
▹ Omega Fatty Acids
▸ Lipids (fats and oils)
▸ Amino Acids
▸ Proteins
▸ Enzymes
▸ Vitamins
▸ DNA
Biochemical Reactions
▸ Fermentation
▸ Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars
▸ Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates
▹ Glycaemic Index (GI)
▸ Acid Hydrolysis of Triglycerides
▸ Acid Hydrolysis of Proteins
Applications of Biochemistry
▸ Chemistry of Blood
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Inorganic (non-carbon) Chemistry
Periodic Table
▸ History of the Periodic Table
▸ Introduction to the Modern Periodic Table
▹ Critical Elements
▸ s,p,d,f Blocks of the Periodic Table
▸ Trends in Electron Configuration
▸ Trends in Ionization Energy
▸ Trends in Atomic Radius
▸ Trends in Electronegativity
▸ Trends in Properties of Oxides
▸ Trends in Group 1 (Group IA, alkali metals)
▸ Trends in Group 2 (Group IIA, alkaline-earth metals)
▸ Trends in Group 16 Hydrides
▸ Trends in Group 17 (VIIA, halogens)
▸ Trends in Period 2 (second period)
▸ Trends in Period 3 (third period)
Introduction to Naming Inorganic Compounds
▸ Inorganic Acid Names and Formulae
▸ Name and Formula of Cations
▸ Name and Formula of Anions
▸ Naming Inorganic Salts (binary inorganic ionic compounds)
▸ Writing Formula of Inorganic Salts (binary inorganic ionic compounds)
▸ Naming Inorganic Non-metallic Binary Covalent Compounds
▸ Molecular Formula of Inorganic Non-metallic Binary Covalent Compounds
Transition Metal Chemistry
▸ Transition Metal Properties
▸ Ligands and Complex Ions
Solid-State Chemistry
▸ Silicates: Structure and Formula
▸ Zeolites: Structure and Uses
Crystallography
▸ X-ray Diffraction and Electron Density Maps
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Physical Chemistry
Nuclear Chemistry
Atomic Structure
▸ Brief History of Atomic Theory
▹ Bohr Model of the Atom
▹ Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
▹ Quantum Numbers
▸ Number of Protons in an Atom
(Atomic Number, Z)
▸ Mass Number (A)
(number of nucleons)
▸ Number of Electrons in an Atom
Ground State Electronic Configuation
(Ground State Electron Configuration)
▸ Evidence for Electron Configuration
from First Ionisation Energy
▸ Electron Configuration: Periods 1 to 3 Atoms (shells)
▹ Electron Configuration of Periods 1 to 3 Ions (shells)
▸ Electron Configuration: Periods 1 to 3 Atoms (subshell)
▸ Electron Configuration: Period 4 (subshell)
▸ Orbital Diagrams
▸ Isoelectronic Species
Isotopes
▸ Isotopes
▸ Relative Atomic Mass (estimated)
▹ Mass Spectroscopy (isotopes, atomic weight)
▸ Isotope Stability (introduction)
▹ Mass Defect
▹ Nuclear Binding Energy
Nuclear Decay
▸ Nuclear Decay
▸ Radioactive Half Life Simulation Activity
▸ Half-Life Definitions and Calculations
Applications of Isotopes and Radiation
▸ Properties and Uses of Radiation and Radioisotopes
▹ Uses of Carbon-14 for Dating
▹ Uses of Radioisotopes in Smoke Detectors
Bonding
▸ Lewis Structures (electron dot diagrams)
▹ Coordinate Covalent Bonds (dative bonds)
▸ Shapes of Molecules (VSEPR theory)
▸ Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
▸ Molecule Polarity
▸ Intramolecular Forces
▹ Metallic Bonding
▹ Ionic Bonding
▹ Covalent Bonding
▸ Intermolecular Forces
(and effects on melting point and solubility)
Gas Laws
▸ Gay-Lussac's Law of Combining Gas Volumes
▸ Avogadro's Principle
▸ Boyle's Law (Mariotte's Law)
▸ Charles' Law
▸ Combined Gas Equation
▸ Ideal Gas Law
▸ Kinetic Theory of Gases
▸ Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
▸ Graham's Laws of Effusion and Diffusion
▸ Henry's Laws (gas solubility)
Thermochemistry (energy)
Introduction to thermochemical concepts
▸ Enthalpy Change (ΔH) for Endothermic & Exothermic Reactions
▸ Enthalpy Change Calculations (ΔH and stoichiometry)
▸ Energy Profiles (energy diagrams)
Calculating Enthalpy Change of Reactions using tabulated data
▸ Hess's Law (of Constant Heat Summation) Introduction
▸ Bond Energy (enthalpy) and Heat of Reaction
▸ Latent Heat (Latent Enthalpy)
▸ Heat (Enthalpy) of Formation and Reaction
Calorimetry: Measuring Enthalpy Change of Reactions Experimentally
▸ Heat Capacity Calculations (Cg & Cn)
Solution Calorimetry (cup calorimeter)
▸ Heat of Reaction Introduction
(Enthalpy of Reaction)
▹ Heat of Solution
(Enthalpy of Solution)
▹ Heat of Neutralisation
(Enthalpy of Neutralization)
Heat of Combustion
▸ Molar Heat of Combustion of Liquid Fuels
(Molar Enthalpy of Combustion of Liquid Fuels)
▸ Heat of Combustion of Food
(Enthalpy of Combustion of Food)
Calorimetry (adiabatic, electrical)
▸ Bomb Calorimeter and Solution Calorimeter
Applications of Thermochemistry
▸ Fuel Definitions
▸ Comparing Fuels
▸ Biodiesel
Thermodynamics
▸ First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Energy Conservation)
▸ Second Law of Thermodynamics: Introduction to Entropy
▸ Third Law of Thermodynamics and Standard Absolute Entropy Change Calculations (ΔS°)
▸ Introduction to Spontaneous Reactions: enthalpy and entropy
▹ Gibbs Free Energy (G): Definition and Spontaneity of Reactions
▹ Gibbs Free Energy of Formation (ΔGƒ°) Calculations
▹ Gibbs Free Energy Change Calculations (ΔG° = ΔH° - TΔS°)
▹ Effect of Temperature on Gibbs Free Energy and Spontaneity of Reactions
Chemical Kinetics (reaction rates)
▸ Rate of Reaction
▸ Kinetic Energy (Maxwell-Boltzman) Distribution
▸ Using Rate Law
▸ Determining Rate Law
Electrochemistry
Concepts
▸ Oxidation and Reduction Concepts
▸ Oxidation Numbers (States)
▸ Writing half-equations (for simple ions)
▸ Writing half-equations for aqueous solutions (acidic conditions)
▸ Writing half-equations for aqueous solutions (basic conditions)
▸ Redox Reaction Concepts
▸ Writing Redox Equations
▸ Eo: oxidation & reduction
▸ Eo calculations: redox reactions
▸ Spontaneous vs Non-spontaneous Redox Reactions
▸ Electrolyte Strength
▸ Quantity of Electricity (charge) Calculations
▸ Electrical Energy Calculations (E = Q × V)
Applications: Galvanic (Voltaic Cells)
▸ Displacement Reactions (activity series)
▸ Voltaic (Galvanic) Cells
▸ Galvanic Cell Diagrams
▸ Corrosion
▸ Batteries
▹ Lead-Acid Batteries
▹ Fuel Cells
Electrolytic Cells
▸ Electrolytic Cell Concepts
▸ Electrolysis of Molten Salts
▸ Electrolysis of Aqueous Salt Solutions
▸ Electroplating Concepts
▸ Faraday Laws of Electrolysis
also see Metallurgy and Industrial Chemistry sections below
Advanced Electrochemistry
▸ Nernst Equation
Equilibrium
Equilbrium Theory
▸ Reversible and Irreversible Changes
▸ Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium
▸ Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions at Equilibrium
▸ Equilibrium Concepts
▸ Le Chatelier's Principle
▸ Mass-Action Expression (Q)
▸ Law of Chemical Equilibrium
▸ Equilibrium Constants (K)
▹ R.I.C.E. (I.C.E.) Tables and K Calculations
▹ K and Extent of Reaction
▹ K and Temperature
▹ K and Reverse Reactions
▹ K and Stoichiometry
▸ Ion Product for Water (Kw)
▸ Acid Dissociation Constants (Ka)
▸ Base Dissociation Constants (Kb)
▸ pK (pKw, pKa, pKb)
▸ Solubility Products (Ksp)
▸ KP and Kc
▸ Q vs K : predicting direction of reaction
Equilibrium Applications: Biological
▸ Chemistry of Blood
Equilibrium Applications: Industrial
▸ Uses and Production of Ammonia (Haber Process)
▸ Manufacture and Uses of Sulfuric Acid
Equilibrium Applications: Solubility
▸ Precipitation Reaction Equations
▸ Solubility Rules (qualitative)
▸ Solubility Table (table of solubilities g/100 mL)
▸ Solubility Curves (g/100 g)
▸ Solubility and Le Chatelier's Principle
▸ Solubility Products (Ksp)
Acids and Bases (application of equilibrium)
Acid and Base Concepts
▸ Properties of Acids and Bases
▸ Definitions and Properties of Acids and Bases
▹ Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases (definitions)
▹ Brønsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases (definitions)
▹ Brønsted-Lowry Proton Transfer Reactions
▸ pH Scale Concepts
▹ pH Calculations for acids
▹ [H+] Calculations for acids
▸ pOH Concepts
▹ pOH Calculations for bases
▹ [OH-] Calculations for bases
▸ Strength of Acids
▹ pH of Strong Acids
▹ Hydrogen Ion Concentration of Strong Acids
▹ Hydroxide Ion Concentration of Strong Acids
▹ pOH of Strong Acids
▹ Weak Acids (Ka)
▸ Strength of Bases
▹ pOH of Strong Bases
▹ Hydroxide Ion Concentration of Strong Bases
▹ pH of Strong Bases
▹ Hydrogen Ion Concentration of Strong Bases
▹ Weak Bases (Kb)
▸ Polyprotic Weak Acid Concepts
▸ pH of a Polyprotic Strong Acid (Sulfuric Acid)
▸ pH of Strong Acids After Dilution
▸ pH of Weak Acids After Dilution
▸ pH of Strong Bases After Dilution
▸ pH After Mixing Weak Acids (introduction)
▸ Strength of Conjugate Acids and Bases
▸ Hydrolysis of Acids and Bases (Ka × Kb = Kw)
Acid and Base Reactions
▸ Neutralisation Reactions
▸ Acidic, Basic, Neutral Aqueous Solutions
▹ pH of Aqueous Solutions After Mixing Strong Acid and Strong Base
▹ pH of Aqueous Solutions After Mixing Weak Acid and Strong Base
▸ pH of Aqueous Salt Solutions (introduction)
▹ Calculating pH of Aqueous Salt Solutions
Acid and Base Applications
▸ Buffer Concepts
see also Acid-Base Titrations, Volumetric Analysis, below
Solutions
Concepts of Solutions
▸ Solutions Concepts
▹ Water as a Solvent
Calculating Concentration of Solutions
(i) per quantity of solution
(a) volume of solution
▸ Mass Concentration (w/v, m/v)
▸ Mass/Volume Percentage (%w/v %m/v)
▸ Parts per Million (ppm)
▸ Molarity, Molar Concentration (mol L-1 or M)
▹ Dilution Calculations
▹ Dilution Factor
▸ Converting Between Concentration Units
(b) mass of solution
▸ Mass Fraction and Mass Percent (%w/w, %m/m)
(c) moles of solution
▸ Mole Fraction and Mole Percent
(ii) per quantity of solvent
(a) volume of solvent
▸ Weight Ratio Percentage
(b) moles of solvent
▸ Molality
Properties of Solutions
▸ Colligative Properties of Solutions Introduction
▹ Raoult's Law
▹ Freezing Point Depression & Boiling Point Elevation
▹ Osmotic Pressure
Surface Chemistry
▸ Surface Tension
▸ Wetting
▸ Capillary Action
▸ Soaps and Saponification
▸ Synthetic Detergents
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Analytical Chemistry
Gas Tests
▸ Gas Preparation and Tests
Gravimetric Analysis
▸ Gravimetric Analysis
▹Sulfate in Lawn Fertiliser
▹ Chloride in Seawater
(See also applications of equilibrium: solubility)
Volumetric Analysis (Titrations)
Introduction to Volumetric Analysis Concepts
▸ Standard Solutions
▸ Titration Techniques
Volumetric Analysis: Acids and Bases Concepts
Acid-Base Indicators
▸ Introduction to Acid-Base Indicators: Colour and pH
▸ Indicator End Point (equilibrium application)
▸ Choosing Indicators for Acid-Base Titrations
Acid - Base Titrations (direct titrations)
▸ Acid Base Titration Calculations
▸ Acid Base Titration Curves (graphs)
▹ Strong Monoprotic Acid - Strong Base Titration Curve Calculations
▹ Strong Diprotic Acid - Strong Base Titration Curve Calculations
▹ Weak Monoprotic Acid - Strong Base Titration Curve Calculations
▸ Acetic Acid Concentration in Vinegar by Direct Titration
Back Titrations (indirect titrations)
▸ Back Titration Calculations
Conductometric Titrations
▸ Acid-Base Conductometric Titrations
▸ Precipitation Conductometric Titrations
REDOX Titrations
▸ REDOX Titration Calculations
▹ Ethanol REDOX Titrations (Wine or Beer Analysis)
▹ Hypochlorite REDOX Titrations (Bleach Analysis)
Complexometric Titrations
▸ Total Hardness in Hard Water
▸ Calcium Ion Concentration in Hard Water
Precipitation Titrations
▸ Precipitation Titration (argentimetric titration)
Instrumental Techniques for Chemical Analysis
Chromatography
▸ Chromatography Overview
▹ Paper Chromatography
▹ Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
▹ Gas Chromatography (GC or GLC)
▹ High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
Electrophoresis
▸ Electrophoresis
Spectroscopy
▸ Spectroscopy Overview
(i) Emission Spectroscopy
▹ Flame Tests
▹ Emission Spectroscopy (Atomic Spectroscopy)
▹ Hydrogen Emission Spectrum
(ii) Absorption Spectroscopy
▹ Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
▹ Colorimetry
▹ UV-Visible Spectroscopy (spectrophotometric analysis)
Spectroscopy for Structural Determination
▸ Infrared Spectroscopy
▸ Mass Spectroscopy (isotopes)
▸ Mass Spectroscopy (structural identification)
▸1H NMR Spectroscopy
▸ 13C NMR Spectroscopy
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Environmental Chemistry
Atmosphere
▸ Carbon Cycle
▸ Nitrogen Cycle
▸ Ozone Layer and Ozone Depletion
▸ Photochemical Smog
▸ Greenhouse Gases and Effect
▸ Acid Rain
Water
▸Analysis of Water
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Industrial Chemistry
Green Chemistry
▸ Green Chemistry Principles
▹ Atom Economy (Atom Utilisation)
Industrial Chemistry Case Studies
▸ Uses and Production of Ammonia (Haber Process)
▸ Uses and Production of Sulfuric Acid (Contact Process)
▸ Uses and Production of Sodium Carbonate (Solvay Process)
▸ Uses and Production of Sodium Hydroxide (Electrolytic Processes)
▸ Petrochemical Industry:
▹ case study: Production of Ethene (ethylene)
Polymers
▸ Polymers and Polymerization
Addition Polymerisation
▹ Production of Polyethene (polyethylene)
▹ Production of Polvinyl chloride (PVC)
▹ Polystyrene
▹ Polytetrafluoroethene
▹ Polypropene (polypropylene)
Condensation Polymerisation
▹ Polyesters
▹ Production of Polyamides (nylons)
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Nanotechnology
▸ Nanoparticles and Nanotechnology Introduction
▸ Graphene and Fullerenes
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Medicinal Chemistry (Drugs and Pharmaceuticals)
▸ Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)
▸ Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
▸ Ibuprofen
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Metallurgy
Reactions Involving Metals
▸ Metal + Water
▸ Metal + Non-oxidizing Acid
▸ Metal + Oxygen
▸ Activity Series
Extracting Metals
▸ Metal Extraction Concepts
Smelting Oxides
▹ Carbon Reduction Method
Smelting Sulfides
▹ Copper Sulfides
Electrolytic Extraction
▹ Copper : Electrowinning
▹ Aluminium Production : Hall-Heroult Cell
▹ Sodium Production : Downs Cell
Refining Metals
▸ Electrorefining
Alloys
▸ Binary Alloys
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